Alan K. Meier

Intermediate Transport in South East Asian Cities

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Transport in Jakarta - Within the Kampong

Movement within the kampongs faces several constraints. First, there are few major roads cutting through them which means that most motor vehicles cannot enter or at least reach most homes. As a result, smaller, two and three-wheeled vehicles are the principal modes of transport, but even these cannot always operate on the narrow paths and twisting alleys. There, all goods must be carried on foot. The favourite method seems to be by using a balanced wooden pole where the cargo hangs on both ends. Some of these poles are curved upward at the ends, seemingly to avoid poking anyone. Many food vendors carry their wares on poles, complete with a brazier on one end. I have also seen wicker baskets, carried like backpacks, used very effictently. All the kampong paths are wide enough to accommodate two of these modes passing each other.

On the wider paths and alleys water carts and becaks appear. The water cart, a two-wheeled cart carrying eight ten-litre cans, is a familiar sight in the kampongs, most of which do not have running water. The becak, a three wheeled pedicab which usually carries two passengers, is used extensively for both intra and interkampong transport. The driver sits behind the passengers and provides power to the single, driven rear wheel. For steering purposes the entire front compartment turns on a heavy-duty pivot beneath the passengers. There is a single brake on the rear wheel operated by a lever underneath the driver's seat. Becaks are built in every large Indonesian city to a unique design, though in Jakarta production has now ceased in anticipation of the 1979 ban.

The design of the becak makes steering difficult since it is very awkward to turn the whole passenger compartment, and the heavy-duty pivot adds weight and weakens the frame. Furthermore, no brakes can be used on the front wheels because: a) since the wheels spin independently, even braking is impossible and b) if even braking were possible, the driver might flip the becak end-over-end. Thus, a becak driver must be extremely careful when carrying heavy loads; he simply cannot stop quickly. Even in the hilly city of Bandung, there is only a rear brake, though a foot lever had been added for greater leverage on the brake. However, the Bandung becaks did have a lower gear ratio for easier hill climbing and a free wheel for coasting.

The inter-kampong transport aspect of becaks is slowly being stifled by government prohibitions. By 1979 it is planned to eliminate all becaks from Jakarta. The prohibition is intended to occur gradually; first the becaks were banned from certain district and principal highways. Later the becak-free districts will be enlarged and new ones included. Finally, all becaks will be banned. The first phase has already been completed, most of downtown and the main arteries are becak-free. During the night, however, between ten in the evening and six in the morning, these areas are once again open to becaks. Becaks will lose this night-time freedom at the end of 1954. During the daytime the becaks are confined to intrakampong movement because they cannot use the principal roads bordering the kampong.

A great number of the becak rides are from the principal roads into the kampong. As a result, the becaks tend to cluster around the intersection of the major kampong access roads and the arterial roads. The becak is also used heavily in shopping areas so great clusters are found around the market areas, too. They are so easy to hail and use that even the lower middle class ride becaks for short distances. It is ironic that the middle class in Jakarta will have to walk more than in other Indonesian cities because the becak substitutes are over-priced for such casual use. This convenience of instant, short-distance transport is rapidly disappearing in Jakarta.

Nobody knows exactly how many becaks operate in the city of Jakarta. Estimates range from 30,000 to over 100,000. The city government issues only 20,000 licenses, but the becak owners make copies and the best estimates are that an average of three becaks are operating on each license. With 20,000 licenses this means there are approximately 60,000 becaks ir Jakarta. Almost all are owned by the Chinese, often as many as two hundred by a single man. The owner leases them to drivers a flat fee of approximately $0.75 for a twelve hour day. The driver, who is responsible for maintenance, probably clears around $1 day. (Unskilled labour in Jakarta earns about the same.) Rental fees and income are about 25% lower for the night shift.

While it is common knowledge that the Chinese own all the becaks, comparatively little is known about the approximately 90,000 becak drivers. (This figure is my estimate based upon 60,000 becaks used for one and a half shifts.) It is generally believed that the becak drivers are the new arrivals to the city and driving a becak is their first job. After a couple of years driving a becak, the driver is familiar enough with the city to find a better job. Evidently, this stereotype is not entirely true. Surveys in Bandung found that many becak drivers were moonlighting civil servants or from other lower-middle income jobs. (Ref. 3) It has become very important to know the socio-economic background of the becak drivers because the government is initiating a large scale retraining programme. Clearly , an entirely different approach is needed if they are dealing with under-employed former becak drivers as opposed to un-employed becak drivers. Most of the government programmes assume the problem is un-employed becak drivers, so retraining will focus on training for factory jobs, work on neglected plantations, or transmigration. There is also a large programme to upgrade the becak drivers to helicak drivers. Upgrading involves training to receive a driver's license and government assisted purchase of the motorized vehicle. Only a limited number of new drivers could possibly be absorbed in this manner since the motorized replacements are at least three times as efficient, in terms of passenger-km/day, as the becaks, thus, only a third as many vehicles and drivers are required. However, because of corruption it is likely that few becak drivers will ever benefit from this programme.

The implications of a ban on becaks are serious and serve as an example of the imposition of technology on a society which is neither economically nor socially prepared. A large number of persons will become un-employed (or underemployed) while a much smaller number of new jobs will be created. Unless there is a substantial lowering of fares on the becak replacements, the ban will deprive the lower class of their only means of individual transportation.

Furthermore, the introduction of becak substitutes will adversely affect the quality of life within the kampongs for, despite the high noise level on the roads around them, they have remained remarkably quiet. The introduction of motor vehicles inside the kampong will not only increase the noise levels but also the air pollution, since the exhaust fumes will tend to stay trapped in the narrow streets and alleys.

The government claims that becaks are degrading and cause accidents and, for those two reasons, snould be banned. In addition, becak driving serves as employment for illegal immigrants to the city. There is a ban on migration to Jakarta by the unskilled, and elimination of the becaks would remove one of the important sources of employment for new arrivals. There has been a running battle between the city government and the becak drivers. Whenever enforcement of the becak-free zones becomes lax, the becaks return to these more profitable areas. Eventually the police notice and crack down. The riders are fined and the police also check for illegal residency.

Bicycles, motorcycles, and motorscooters are also seen within the kampong, though most of the destinations are outside the kampong. It should be understood that these two-wheelers navigate even the smallest alley with ease so that every home can potentially own some sort of vehicle.